Women Liberation Movements in Britain and France, 1873 – 1945: Lessons for Nigerian Women
Introduction
In the course of examining the significance of women movement in Britain and France between 1873 and 1945, it should be noted that the relationship between women and politics in the society has overtime been a challenging one. From prehistoric times, societal roles have been split between men and women – an occurrence that has continued till today. During the 18th and 19th centuries in Europe, issues bordering on the discrimination of women across various sectors of the society raised the consciousness of women’s suffrage movement especially in England and France respectively. The women liberation movement in Europe had begun gradually since 1873 in Britain, through the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s.1
Inspired by some developments in North America as well as the increasing presence of women engaging in the business sector, the movement gained momentum in Britain. In addition to improvements in working conditions and equal pay, liberationists fought for the complete autonomy for women including their right to make decisions regarding abortion and their sexuality. Thus, it is against this backdrop that this article seeks to adumbrate on the significance of women’s movement in England and France with emphasis on lessons to be learnt by Nigerian women in the course of their continuous quest for gender equity.
Women liberation movement in Britain
In England, women’s suffrage movement was focused on establishing political, social and economic liberty and equality for women. In fact, the background of feminism in Britain can be traced to the very beginnings of feminism itself.2 This is evidenced with the fact that a lot of feminist writers and activists such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Barbara Bodichon, and Lydia Becker are all of British nativity. Furthermore, the advent of the reformist ages (the political doctrine advocating the reform of an existing system or institution) during the nineteenth century motivated women to courageously strive for their redemption. Relatively, it was based on this premise that Robert Owen, while asking for the social reorganization of society in favour of women, laid down the basis of a new reform and one of the movements that took advantage of such new spirit was the feminist movement. This was so serious that women had to forsake their ‘Victorian gentle lady lifestyle’ in pursuit of their freedom from patriarchy.3
Interestingly, the first organized British women’s suffrage movement was the ‘Langham Place Circle’ of the 1850s, led by Barbara Bodichon and Bessie Rayner Parkes.4 This movement spearheaded the campaign for improved female rights in various professions and aspects of the society like education, law, employment and marriage.
By 1835, widows and women who owned properties in England were disenfranchised from voting during local elections. However, in 1851, the Sheffield Female Political Association was founded and in a bid to helping women reclaim their political franchise, the association submitted an unsuccessful petition to the House of Lords in request for women’s suffrage. Thus, this situation inspired the British feminist Harriet Taylor Mill to write the pro-women’s suffrage masterpiece entitled The Enfranchisement of Women in 1851.5
In another event, ambitious middle-class women who had the intention of engaging in careers like nursing, medicine, law and teaching were faced with a myriad of challenges. While they were restricted from becoming physicians, white collar jobs outside family owned businesses were few until the 20th century when clerical job placements were available. On the other hand, teaching during the time in question was not an easy profession for women especially with its poor remuneration system. By the late 1860s, a number of schools prepared women as governesses and teachers. In fact the census revealed in 1851 that 70,000 women in England and Wales were teachers, compared to the 170,000 who comprised three-fourths of all teachers in 1901.6 Howbeit, with the establishment of the National Union of Women Teachers (NUWT) in the first half of the 20th century, the union demanded equal pay with male teachers, and eventually broke away from the National Union of Teachers.
Since the women were met with so much resistance while striving to become relevant in careers like physiology, medicine among other science-related professions, they diverted their interest to the United States where there were suitable schools for women as early as 1850. The first separate school for women physicians opened in London in 1874 to a handful of students. By the end of the nineteenth century, women had secured equality of status in most spheres except for voting and holding of office. Further, prior to 1839, women lost control of their children in the course of divorce. Caroline Norton was one of the women who were denied access to her three sons after a divorce with her husband. This resulted in her aggressive campaign against the effects of a male-dominated society. Fortunately, her campaign and consequently, movement led to the enacting of the Custody of Infants Act of 1839 and introduced the Tender Years Doctrine for child custody arrangement. Consequently, as a result of the overbearing pressures exerted by women, parliament, in 1873, extended presumption of maternal custody until a child reached sixteen.7
It is argued by Bullough that male prostitution in 18th century Britain was viewed as economic necessity for many poor women and hence was tolerated in the society. However, in this same polity, prostitution, according to the values of the Victorian middle-class was a horrible evil for young men, women and the society at large. But this did not stop the act. As such, in the 1860s, the parliament, through the Contagious Diseases Acts (‘CD”) adopted the French system of licensed prostitution-whose main goal was to secure working men, soldiers and sailors near ports and army bases from being infected with venereal diseases. The implication of this policy was that young women officially became prostitutes – an anomaly which painted the English society in a bad light. Be that as it may, It took a nationwide crusade led by Josephine Butler and the ‘Ladies National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts’ before the British parliament repealed the acts in 1886 and thus ended legalized prostitution.8 After the event, Josephine Butler became a a heroine for the girls she saved save as the age of consent for women was raised from 12 to 16 thus reducing the supply of young prostitutes who as of the time in question, were in highest demand.
Again, series of laws like the Married Women’s Property Act passed by the parliament from 1870 to 1893 effectively removed the restrictions placed on married women from controlling their own property. With this in mind, they were meant to have equal status with their husbands – a status superior to women anywhere else in Europe.9 Working class women were protected by series of laws that were passed based on the notion that they did not have full bargaining power and therefore needed full security from the government.
In the early twentieth century England, women had more employment opportunities and were more active. While many served in the British Empire, others worked in protestant missionary societies. In 1903, Emmeline Pankhurst formed the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU). The Union was formed in order to advance the need for granting women their franchise which according to Emmeline Pankhurst was a desperate necessity.10 In 1906, the Daily Mail was the first to coin coined the term ‘suffragettes’ as a form of ridicule but the term was quickly embraced in Britain by women who utilised militant tactics in their quest for women liberation.. Additionally, the agitation for voting rights later took an aggressive approach especially as radical protesters joined the movement. This resulted in the imprisonment of many protesters while hunger strike dealt with others.
World War 1 also contributed to the advancement of women liberation movement in Britain. While the militant suffrage movement was suspended during the war, the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act received Royal Assent on December 23, 1919. The purpose of this Act was to amend the law with respect to disqualification on account of sex. By the proclamation, the British monarch was empowered to regulate the admission of women into the civil service by Orders in Council. Also, Judges were permitted to control the gender composition of juries. The United Kingdom’s “Representation of the People Act” of 1918 gave near universal suffrage to men as well as women who were more than thirty years of age. Also, the ‘Representation of the People Act’ of 1928 extended equal suffrage to both men and women. Its decisions favoured the Labour Party which was more sympathetic to issues bordering of women liberation.8 Remarkably, women gained considerable electoral experience in the British parliament in 1940.
Women’s liberation movement in France
At the beginning of the French revolution in November 1789, a petition on women freedom and liberation was addressed to the National Assembly but it was not discussed. Although various feminist movements emerged during the revolution, but a good number of politicians were in agreement with Jacques Rousseau’s theories which confined women to the roles of mother and spouse. Between 1880 and 1914, the concept of feminism witnessed a drastic shift. This is evidenced in the boldness with which French women publicly rejected the discriminatory acts and policies which restricted them from living freely.11 During this period, the role of pro-feminist newspapers in transforming both the view of women and their rights became prevalent. Moreso, despite the fact that the period in question witnessed a lot of events that promoted issues pertaining to the rights of French women, they still could not receive equal citizens’ status.
In 1909, a French noblewoman and feminist Jeanne-Elizabeth Schmahi founded the French Union for Women’s Suffrage with the primary aim of advocating for women’s right to vote in France.12 French women were denied voting rights for so many reasons: from the fear of the influence of clericalism to the fear of radicalist social party. Women obtained the right to vote after the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) confirmed on October 5, 1944, the ordinance of April 21, 1944 of the French Committee of National Liberation.13 Following the November 1946 elections, the first in which women were permitted to vote, it was observed that women did not vote in a consistent way but rather divided themselves, as men according to social classes. It should be remembered that as French women suffered disenfranchisement, they also battled career disparity. However, Oliga Petit became the first female lawyer in France on December 6, 1900.12
In 1938, the marital power which maintained the legal subordination of wives was abolished with women obtaining full equality in marriage in the 1980s. Again, women were not allowed to become judges in France until 1946. A few women held public office in the 1930s and of course, thud was kept a low profile. In 1936, the new Prime Minister Leon Blum, included three women namely Cecille Brunschvicg, Suzanne Lacore and Irene Jollot-Curie in the Popular Front government.13 The inclusion of women in the Popular Front government was appreciated by a conservative newspaper Le Temps which on June 1,1936 noted that women could be ministers without previous authorizations from their husbands and this inspired further radical quests for the absolute freedom and equality of women especially during the third wave of feminism in France.14
Lessons for Nigerian Women
It is very essential to point out that the greatest challenge which has continued to hinder the freedom and liberty of Nigerian women in the political, social and economic space is that they rarely support one another hence the lack of coordination, commitment and consistency in influencing policies and programmes that are meant to amplify their rights and privileges in the society. Despite the fact that there are many women organisations whose overarching aim is to advance the cause of gender mainstreaming in the Nigerian society, the fact remains that they have not taking much practical steps in ensuring that women wholly suppress the impact of patriarchy on their activities in the society. In view of the English and French women liberation movements, the following lessons and recommendations should be learned and applied by Nigerian women in a bid to ultimately relegate patriarchy to the background/
Women should endeavour to increasingly take active part in the politics of the country. They should join political parties and stand for election in different government positions especially the legislature. With more women in the national assembly and state houses of assembly, it will be easy for them to sponsor bills that would engender the liberty and freedom of women and girls in the country.
Nigerian women should always work in collaboration and not competition of men especially in the course of promoting their rights. They should quit seeing men as their enemies and rather work side by side with them. When men are involved in the cause of promoting the idea of gender mainstreaming across different sectors of the country, they would help influence other men in different walks of life to join the struggle and this ways, women will have a lot o people standing with them. Just like in England and France, there are men who firmly supported women via their writings, publications and even ideas on the emancipation of women. Also, some of the women feminists like Simon de Beauvoir, Mary Wollstonecraft and others had their boyfriends support at one time or the other in the course of their movements.
Nigerian women should stop reducing themselves to mere objects of sexual slavery. They should be bold and courageous in taking opportunities that would expose them to higher positions of authority in the society. They should stop thinking less of themselves and rather pursue their dreams in any profession or career of their choice. However, the amassing of wealth and fame should not be a benchmark for projecting gender attacks against men.
Women should also take advantage of the role of women traditional institutions to checkmate the overbearing excesses of patriarchy in their respective communities
With adequate re-orientation of the Nigerian populace of the need for the respect of human rights including respect for the rights of women and girls, gender mainstreaming can be achieved. Again, parents have a role to play in their families. Here, there is need to teach their children and wards the need to respect one another irrespective of gender. Gender roles should not be split but rather shared among the children. With this orientation, the thoughts and practice of gender inequality will be reduced in the society.
Conclusion
The article x-rayed the commitment to change the condition of women and promote gender equality – a series of events that led to the rise of various women liberation movements in Britain, France and even the United States. These movements comprises many liberals and radicals who collectively worked together to ensure that women’s’ voice were heard and also that they gained political, social and economic relevance in society. It must be noted that the achievements of these movements both in Britain and France did not occur without resistance from the male-dominated system. However, the fact remains that these achievements became a motivation for further quest for an equal society even till present. Overall, the article outlined a number of lessons and recommendation for Nigerian women. These are to help them foster a formidable and coordinated network through which they will achieve their goals.
Endnotes
1‘Women’s Suffrage.’https://www.britannica.com/topic/woman-suffrage.
2 Ibid.
3 Hillary Fraser et al., Gender and the Victorian Periodical. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 29.
4 BBC –History Figures: Harriet Taylor (1807 – 1858) www.bbc,co.uk.
5 Halevy Elle, A history of the English People. London: Ernest Benn, 1934, .500.
6 Sanford K. N. That they may thrive, goal of child custody: reflections on the apparent erosion of the tender years presumption and the emergence of the primary caretaker presumption. Journal of contemporary Health law and policy, 8(1), 2015, 8.
7 Halevy Elle, A history of the English People, 498-500.
8 Halevy Elle, A history of the English People, 495-496.
9 June Pruvis, “Socialist and public representative,” In J. Purvis (ed.) Emmeline Pankhurst:a biography. London: Routledge, 2003, 45.
10 James J. Smyth, Labour in Glasgow; 1896-1936: socialism, suffrage, sectarianism. Scotland: Tuckwell press, 2000, 46.
11 Louise M. Roberts, Disruptive Acts: The New Woman in Fin-de-Siecle, France. Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2000, 2.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
13 Buchanan Kelly, “Women in History: Lawyers and Judges” In Custodia Legis: Law Librarians of Congress. Blogs.loc.gov.
14 Christine Bard, “Women and Politics,” http://www.histoire-politique.
15 Ibid.
