IMPLICATIONS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON NIGERIAN WOMEN

It is more common for individuals to wake up and be informed about incidents of domestic abuse through news sources. Spouses are killed by their husbands, unwed women are regularly killed by a spurned suitor, and other acts of cruelty are predominantly inflicted on females, such as unsafe abortion (Donohoe 2006, Onoh et al. 2013, WHO 2016). Currently, the media is saturated with prominent instances of domestic abuse, particularly those when a man is believed to have killed his partner (Abdul 2014, Afrol News 2016). In Nigeria, a significant number of women who are subjected to violence choose not to disclose these occurrences, resulting in their silent suffering. This is often due to the embarrassment associated with the stigma, concerns about the well-being of their children, and a desire to avoid divorce (Faero 2015, Afrolnews 2016, Oyediran & Isiugo 2003). Domestic violence (DV) is a term used to refer to many forms of abuse that occur inside close relationships, such as spousal abuse, intimate partner violence, battering, or family violence. Siemieniuk et al (2010) provided a definition of domestic violence as a recurring series of harmful actions carried out by one’s partner towards another individual in an intimate connection, such as marriage, dating, family, or cohabitation. Domestic violence encompasses various forms of harmful behaviour, including physical aggression, assault, threats, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, controlling or dominating behaviour, intimidation, stalking, passive or covert abuse (such as neglect), and economic deprivation (Breiding et al., 2014; Plichta, 2004; Thompson & Kaplan, 2006). Domestic abuse is a global issue that affects families from diverse social, racial, economic, educational, and religious origins. Domestic violence (DV) can occur in both heterosexual and same-sex relationships, as noted by Thompson and Kaplan (2006) and the Department for Education and Skills (2006). DV engenders ecological disruption and inflicts suffering or damage upon all parties implicated. However, the issue is frequently disregarded, justified, and occasionally, completely dismissed. Oftentimes, the psychological repercussions of domestic violence are disregarded or excused. Women are disproportionately targeted as victims, however men can also experience abuse, often in the form of verbal and emotional mistreatment, although physical violence is also possible in some cases. Although individuals of all genders and ages can experience domestic abuse, women and girls are disproportionately impacted. Domestic violence should never be deemed acceptable, regardless of the gender or age of the perpetrator. It undermines an individual’s self-confidence, along with causing other health repercussions. Living in constant apprehension of one’s loved ones or colleagues is unacceptable. The prevalence of domestic violence represents a significant and widespread violation of human rights in our current era. It continues to be a predominantly concealed issue that only a few countries, communities, or families openly address. Domestic violence transcends geographical boundaries, ethnicities, and social statuses; it is a pervasive global occurrence. This study focused on examining the origins and the resulting health and societal consequences, as well as providing potential remedies. Researchers have reported various forms of marital violence, encompassing physical assault, sexual abuse, economic abuse, spiritual abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect.

According to Afrolnews (2016), in particular communities in Lagos State, Nigeria, a significant proportion of women, almost two-thirds, have been subjected to physical, sexual, or psychological violence inside their families and in other contexts. This is a concerning situation, given that there are individuals who experience abuse but choose not to disclose it. Amnesty International, as referenced by Oyediran and Isugo (2005), reports that a significant proportion (up to two-thirds in some cases) of women experience physical, sexual, and psychological violence primarily from their husbands, partners, and fathers. Additionally, girls are frequently coerced into early marriages and face punishment if they try to flee from their husbands. Even more distressing is the disclosure of significant underreporting and lack of documentation of domestic abuse as a result of cultural influences. Ebhoimen (2015) observed that domestic violence is a pervasive phenomenon in various ethnicities and cultures around the globe. It is frequently overlooked and not given the appropriate attention it deserves, considering the severe impact it has on children and families. The World Health Organisation (2002) provided a definition of domestic abuse as a variety of sexually, physically, and psychologically coercive behaviours inflicted upon women by their current or previous male intimate partners. It primarily entails the beating of intimate partners, sexual abuse of children, marital rape, and violent treatment of one’s family member by another thereby breaking the law of basic human rights. Adebayo (2014) conducted a review on the social implications of domestic violence on children’s development in Nigeria, and made many observations. Domestic abuse can have severe and enduring consequences, particularly on children and adolescents. Children are frequently the primary targets of domestic abuse. Observing mistreatment and residing in an atmosphere where another individual, typically a carer, is subjected to mistreatment, can have severe psychological consequences for a child. A child who has experienced or observed violence may exhibit symptoms of withdrawal, anxiety, or depression. Conversely, the child may display aggressive behaviour and consistently want to impose dominance over younger siblings or other individuals’ children. Domestic violence has repercussions that extend beyond the immediate victim. It has an equal impact on the entire society. It has a significant impact on the whole economy. The hospitalisation of an employed individual due to domestic violence results in the loss of workdays for the employer and has a broader impact on the economy. The funds that the victim would have allocated judiciously towards household expenses and other profitable endeavours were instead expended on medical care. Oni-Ojo (2014) did a study on how domestic violence affects productivity in the Nigerian workforce.

CAUSES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN NIGERIA

Culture and religion exert significant influence on the occurrence of domestic violence, particularly in African nations. A majority of African family structures, including those in Nigeria, adhere to a patriarchal system where men hold dominant positions and women are placed in subordinate roles. Nigeria is a diverse society comprising of three primary ethnic groups: Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba. The cultural traditions of these three prominent ethnic groups, as well as the other minority groups, relegate women in this culture to a subordinate position. As a result, certain women remain silent and endure their husband’s abusive conduct, even when their own safety is jeopardised. Bakare et al. (2010) discovered that Nigeria’s cultural practices endorse the notion of male supremacy over females. The cultural practices surrounding marriage, such as the payment of bride price and dowry, reinforce the belief that men have ownership rights over women and girls. Consequently, the bias towards preferring male children over female children is prevalent across different ethnic groups in Nigeria. Consequently, girls are afforded fewer educational privileges and other possibilities in comparison to male children. Despite the influence of colonisation and modern religions, namely Christianity and Islam, Nigerian women continue to experience gender discrimination due to traditional customs, with little assistance from these two dominant religions in liberating them. Islam, predominantly observed in Northern Nigeria, advocates for early female child marriage and polygamy, whereas the Christian religion in Southern Nigeria emphasises the submission of women in its teachings and customs. For instance, in Northern Nigeria, it is common for females to be married off at a young age, with some being married before completing their basic school education.

In Nigeria, the prevailing social and cultural conventions establish specific ideals for women and impose strict gender roles onto them. In several African communities, including Nigeria, women were traditionally assigned the primary responsibilities of child-rearing and domestic duties, while males were expected to be the primary providers for the family. Nigerian women frequently face traditional gender restrictions and limited access to education and jobs, resulting in economic disempowerment and dependence on males. Around 40% of the Nigerian population is categorised as experiencing extreme poverty, with estimates indicating that women make up 70% of this group (USAID 2003). The condition caused by this inferiority feeling permeates many aspects of women’s lives and indirectly generates a power imbalance that coerces women into subservient positions, ultimately fostering violence against them.

Psychological theories centre on the examination of the offender’s personality features and mental attributes. Personal characteristics encompass sporadic episodes of rage, impaired ability to resist impulsive behaviour, and diminished self-regard. Exposure to an abusive environment throughout childhood can result in psychological consequences. They have a higher probability of mistreating their spouse, therefore perpetuating the cycle of abuse within the family lineage. Low self-esteem is similarly associated with the occurrence of maltreatment. In situations where a wife makes a higher income than her husband and has a higher social standing, some ignorant husbands may experience a decline in their self-esteem and resort to domestic violence as a final attempt to restore their lost authority over their wife. Instances of domestic violence against women often arise from feelings of envy, particularly when the husband is accused of infidelity or contemplating ending the relationship. Stress may not necessarily directly lead to violence, but it might be a potential response for certain individuals. Individuals residing in impoverished conditions may have a higher propensity for encountering domestic violence, as a result of heightened stress levels and disputes pertaining to financial matters. The source cited is Jewkes (2002). Individuals who see aggressive behaviour are more prone to replicating it. If there are no adverse repercussions and the victim acquiesces to the violence, then the behaviour is likely to persist. Frequently, violence is perpetuated over generations in a cyclical fashion.

EFFECTS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Domestic violence can have both mild and severe health consequences. The health implications can manifest as physical consequences, including mortality, injuries, gynaecological complications, and adverse effects during pregnancy. Additionally, there may be mental repercussions such as depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidal tendencies, substance abuse or dependency. Psychological effects may include anxiety disorders, eating disorders, intense fear, somatization, phobias, panic attacks, sleep disorders, and obsessive-compulsive behaviour (Barnish, 2004, WHO 2011). Psychological symptoms can occasionally resemble those of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Barnish, 2004). Instances of domestic violence have been documented globally, resulting in fatalities including homicides, suicides, and other indirect deaths such as those caused by street homelessness and poor health. Additionally, assault trauma has led to miscarriages and foetal deaths (Campbell, 2002, WHO 2002). The untimely demise of Titilayo Omozoje, a female banker residing in Lagos State, Nigeria on June 24th, 2011, at the hands of her husband Akolade Arowolo, a self-proclaimed youth pastor, continues to linger vividly in the memories of numerous individuals. According to the witnesses in the court procedure, the marriage between the deceased Titilayo and her husband was marked by frequent acts of violence. According to the study, the deceased had relocated to her father’s residence on over 10 occasions following arguments with her husband. According to her coworkers, she would frequently arrive to the office with visible injuries on her body and always claimed that she had fallen from either a bicycle or a stairway (Abdul 2014).

Research utilising psychological analysis has found significant and severe psychological damage in women who have been victims of domestic abuse (WHO 2002; Barnish, 2004). The average prevalence rates of clinical depression among women who have experienced abuse were found to be 48% based on data from 18 research. The likelihood of victims being depressed was, on average, four times higher. The incidence of depression was highest among women residing in refuges. The intensity or duration of violence experienced by these women was found to be connected with the prevalence or severity of depression. Additionally, the presence of life stressors further contributed to the likelihood of experiencing depression (Riggs, 2000, WHO 2002). As per the World Health Organisation (2013), a woman in a developing country dies from complications resulting from an unsafe abortion every 8 minutes. The significant mortality rate is concerning and cannot be equated to the impact of legalising abortion. Grimmes (2006) documented several enduring health ramifications of unsafe abortion, such as impaired wound healing, infertility, internal organ damage (resulting in urinary and faecal incontinence due to vesicovaginal and rectovaginal fistulas), bowel obstructions, and other incalculable consequences, including diminished productivity and psychological harm. Sexually transmitted infections are an additional outcome of rape and sexual harassment. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs or STIs) are infections that are mostly transferred by sexual activity, including vaginal intercourse, anal sex, and oral sex (Oye-Adeniran 2002).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The elimination or reduction of ethnical, cultural, religious practices, socio-economic dependency, gender inequality, and power and control concerns associated with domestic violence can be achieved by addressing the following proposed solution: In order to eliminate the issue of domestic violence in a society such as Nigeria, it is imperative that all relevant parties, including community stakeholders, religious organisations, institutions, and all levels of government, actively participate. Education sessions and interactive sessions aimed at increasing knowledge and understanding of the repercussions and strategies for eradicating domestic abuse. Skilled counsellors would aid in promoting the anti-domestic violence campaign. Governments should allocate funds to engage qualified professional counsellors for the purpose of providing counselling services specifically targeted at domestic violence. It is imperative to generate sufficient knowledge in order to halt the stigmatisation of those who have gone through divorce. They ought to be received back at home with affection. Society must cease its practice of treating people as if they are deserving of inferior treatment. Law enforcement agencies must be trained and made aware that domestic abuse is not a matter to be kept private. Women’s financial autonomy acts as a deterrent to domestic violence and significantly diminishes the absolute authority that men hold over women’s lives, which consistently fuels instances of domestic violence. It is imperative to provide comprehensive education for girls, while actively discouraging early marriage. Both males and females must possess emotional and overall maturity in order to effectively manage any marital pressures and avoid being subjected to the whims of the husband’s relatives.

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